IMPLICATIONS OF COMPETENCE AND PERFORMANCE
– To show that our ability to use language is governed by certain intuitive capacities. This is the reason to why native speakers of the language is capable to say whether the
construction is correct or not even if they are unable to explain it technically.
– It also shows that language ability of an individual can be improved through the use of appropriate methods of language teaching.
– Uses of the language have more in their linguistic stores than what they produce. This is due to the fact that language performance is affected by the number of factors such
as illness, tiredness, stress, etc
– Likewise it shows that language is governed by rules. As it is common for the language users to correct errors and mistakes in different constructions of language.This is
made possible because intuitively we are embedded with those rules
FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE
Human beings can use language for different purposes,The following are the major function of language
1. Referential / communicative function
This is the use of language to convey factual or non-factual information
I.e. human being use language to communicate with each other to pass information from each other .
2. Expressive or emotive function
This is the use of language to express feelings, emotions or attitude. Man can convey his emotions by screams, grunts, sobs and gestures,but still needs language for confirm or
elaborate those signals. Thus report feeling or attitudes of the writer or speaker or of the subject, or evokes feelings in the reader or listener fall under this function.
3. Cognitive or Directive function
This is the use of language for the purpose of influencing the behavior of others e.g. to command them to do something, request them warm them. Thus language is used for the
purpose of causing (or preventing) overt action. This is the most important function of language, it impart factual information and commands. Passing information is absolutely
necessary e.g:- asking and answering questions, reading instructions etc.
4. Phatic or interrogation function
This is the use of language to establish or maintain good social relationship among human beings
E.g. Greetings, cheering-up etc. Uses phrases like “nice day today”, “how do you do”. Think of this situation; Gorge coughs.Then his friend Musa says “Bless you”. This has got
no any informative content but intended to link people and make coexistence peaceful and pleasant.
5. Poetic or athletic function
This is the use of language for pleasure of mind (asthetic) use language in its beauty pleasure.
I.e. language is used for entertainment
e.g. Reading a certain literature for enjoyment, language used in theater for performance – the use of language in artistic way.
6. Meta linguistic function
This is the use of language to talk about language.
I.e. Language for its own sake or the use of language to explain other language concepts.
E.g. we are now learning language.
Other functions
7. Imperative or Declarative
This the use of language for the purpose of declaring something
E.g. Language used in ceremonies, meetings, courts of law, church masses
8. Regulatory function
Use of language for the purpose of warning or imparting discipline to the people been spoken to and thus used in order to win peoples respect
For example the language used by religious leaders
LANGUAGE POLICY IN TANZANIA
This language policy in Tanzania states that Swahili language shall be used as the medium of instruction at the primary school level and English remain the medium of instruction from secondary level to the university level.
The government has accepted both English and Swahili to be used as official languages.
However, the status of English is confusing as it is in transition between being the foreign language and the second language that makes even Swahili in the same transition between the second language and the first language.
NB: the use of either English or Swahili as the medium of instruction has created a very hot debate since there people who support English where as
other support Swahili.
ENGLISH IN SCHOOLS
At present English is used as medium of instruction in secondary schools and higher learning institution. But there is a debate on whether English should continue with the status it has or it should be replaced by Swahili. Let us see the different arguments people have about English out to be replaced by Swahili today.
Those who support the current English status.
Some of their points include the following:
1. English is a language of today’s world business so Tanzanian. So Tanzanian have to learn through it in order to function in today’s world.
2. English is a well developed language due to its long history. Swahili lacks some important vocabulary especially in science and technology.
3. Many books are written in English, so learning through English it is easier and less costly than turning to Swahili. This group of people is
afraid of change because people think the government has no money for changing the medium of instruction.
4. English is everyone’s property today. It is no longer colonial language. It is spoken in different parts of the world so there is no justification
of equating English with colonialism.
5. Learning through English makes a child divergent in class. A person who speaks many different languages is like a person who is living in
many worlds because each language looks at the world differently from other languages. So children should learn though English so that they can explore.
People who propose the use of Swahili.
The following are some of the points made.
1. English language is a foreign language making students learn through a foreign language is like colonizing their minds so we should get rid of their colonization.
2.Students learn better when they use the language they know well. Unfortunately Tanzanians do not know English well so making them continue learning through it endangers education in Tanzania.
3. Experience from developed countries reveals that students learn using their countries languages and English or other languages are learn as subjects but the medium of instruction is Korean (Hangul) these people are technologically developed. They are the ones who export television and other electronics products.
4. English should be taught as subject like the way French is taught. This will improve its teaching. Currently English is very badly taught so the appeal is to improve the teaching of English.
5. Swahili is the language of African identity so we ought to teach using a lot if we are to cherish our heritage
6. No language is endowed with scientific knowledge so it is a myth to believe that English is the language of science and technology. Any language including Swahili can be a metalanguage of science and technology.
7. Already teachers are using code mixing. If you observe many classes you will discover that teachers speak a lot of Swahili in the class room.
So we need to formalize that use of Swahili.
From the argument of both groups, it seems there is a language problem in Tanzania. It seems both English and Swahili are needed. The problem is the status each language is to have. We may argue here that it is possible to teach through Swahili from primary school to University level that will be possible if the government changes its language policy in Education.This may be possible without endangering English. However there has to be some well trained teachers who will teach English.
Translation of the existing literature will not be necessary if English is taught well; this is because students who learn through Swahili will also master English provided it is taught well. Having very competent teachers is an investment so there should be purposefully effort to effect the change.
A LANGUAGE/ SPEECH COMMUNITY
This refer to a group of people who share or regard themselves as sharing the same language or language variety i.e. it is a group of people who mutually understand and hence can speak and use one particular language. For example Swahili language community of East Africa, Bengali language community of Bangladesh, Hehe language community of Iringa region.
LANGUAGE VARIETIES
What is a language variety?
A language variety is any kind of language or any particular kind of language which arises according to difference factors such as the use and the user. Basically language varieties arise due to two basic factors i.e. the use and the user.
There are two major language varieties:-
(a) Register
This is the language variety which arises according to the use.
These determine by several factors such as occupation, field of discourse (Topic), Tenor of discourse (status), mode of discourse (media), Modality (channel), Doman (Function).
(b) Dialect
This is the language variety (variation) that arises according to the user. This var111iety is determined by several factors such as social class or social group, geographical area or location, age, sex, profession etc.
Dialects differ from one another in terms of vocabulary, pronunciation (accent) and grammar but the most noticeable feature is pronunciation (accent)
TYPES OF DIALECTS
There are three major Dialectical varieties of a language.
(a) Sociolect / Social dialect
This is the language variety (type of dialect) which arises according to social class or group i.e. it is the variety of language which used or spoken by people who belong to a particular social class or group such as high class us middle class low class, educated us non – educated, initiated us non – initiate the rich us the poor. The grouping of people into different classes is marked with regard to education back ground, economics status as well as traditions and customs.
(b) Geographical / Regional dialect
This is the variety of language according to geographical location or area i.e. it is the variety of language as used or spoken by inhabitants of a particular place, part or geographical location, for example British English, American English, Australian English, South African English, akwngusa vs Kipemba, Scottish vs Kimachame vs Kirombo vs Kimarangu vs Kibosho.
(c) Idiolect
This is the language variety which arises according to an – individual personal i.e. It is the variety of a language which is used by an individual person in speech or writing
NB: The Individual variety of language is mostly marked in terms of diction (choice of words) the command of language as well as the accent.
THE BASIC DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A LANGUAGE AND A DIALECT
A language and a dialect differ in the following ways
(i) The difference in size
A language is bigger than a dialect in the sense that it has more speakers than a dialect. At the same time a language is spoken in a larger area than that of a dialect, for example the number of English speakers in general is bigger than that of south Africa English likewise English language is spoken in more than one continent but American English is spoken in America.
(ii) Difference in prestige status
A language is more prestigious than a dialect i.e. it has a higher status than the status of dialect – people feel better/ prestigious when they are said to speak a language than when they are said to speak a dialect. For example English speakers feel better than the American English speakers.
(iii) The difference in mutual intelligibility:
Mutual Intelligibility is the stake in which a language or dialect is mutual understood acceptable by all the members. This implies that dialects are mutual intelligible than languages i.e. speakers of different dialects of the same language can understand each other whereas the speakers of different language cannot understand each other. For example speakers of American English and British English are mutually intelligible since the two are the dialect of the same cannot understand each other because the two are different languages
NB: Dialects differ from one another in terms of vocabulary pronunciation (ascent) as well as grammar.
CAUSES OF LANGUAGE VARIETIES
What causes language variation?
There are several reasons for language variation the some of them as follow;
Geographical differences.
Geographical extent is one among the causes of language variation as people who live in different geographical area tend to speak differently from each other. The natural barriers such as mountains big rivers and huge forest are among things that lead to language variation, this is due to the fact that shay affect contacts from one side to another. Geographical distance can be region wise i.e. within one country b (from one region to another) or National wise i.e. One country and another. For example Nigerian English, American English as well as British English, because of limited contact between those countries each country will speak her own language variety.
Occupation.
People of different occupations have different language styles. As the lawyers use language which is characterized by special term and use long and complex sentences in their legal documents while the language journalism is different from that of the lawyers as the journalist use embellished language and their sentences most of the time starts with adverbial elements. Normally each occupation group has their own jargons which differentiate them from another group. Those jargons can only be understood among people of the some occupation. For example adjourn Commence, mutatis mutandis are the jargons which are dominant in legal language.
Age differences
Also these cause language variations as people of different age have different language habit as a result they tend to use language in different way. The children use simple language and sometimes ungrammatical because they have not yet.- Mastered the language. While the youth tends to us slang which is less preferred by elders, the differences we observe among these language users lead to language variation.
Sex differences.
Women and men show significance differences in language use. Some of these differences are physiological and some of them are sociological. Physiologically women use high pitch while men use low pitch as a result of vibration of vocal Cords. Socially there are words which are highly used by men and there are those which are used by women. Sometimes men tends to use unpleasant words (rude/ harsh) in an case way while women tend to be very selective in their diction (choice of words) As a result the two groups leads to language variation.
Social classes.
Normally the society is stratified, now the classes which are found in our society tend to have different language style for example the class of workers have their own language style which is different from the class of farmers likewise the class of educated people is said to use the standard language while uneducated class use non – standard language
Individuality/ idiolect
This refers to individuals language habits that make one language user to be different from other users of the some language. This is determined by the individuals choice of words, having particular voice quality, use of certain expressions and the use of Paralinguistic features An individuality mark the identity of someone hence you can be able to say that someone is speaking as you already know his or her style. Having those individual features which differentiate from one language user to another user of the some language, leads to variation of language.
Basic concept of language
(a) First language (Mother language)
This is the language that a child acquires from his or her parent / family at the childhood such as a language is not learn but it is only
acquired by listening and imitating. Once can know how to speak it but not to write it. For example Kingoni of the Wangoni, Kihehe of
the Wahehe, Kinyakyusa of the Nyakyusa.
(b) Second language
This is the language which is learn after the acquisition of the first language. This language is usually learn formal at school through
drills organized and supervised by the teachers. For example Swahili in Tanzania and English in Kenya, Uganda and Zambia.
(c) Foreign language
This is the language that has been adopted and hence used or spoken in a particular country from another country it is the language used
or spoken outside its original native speakers (used or spoken by non – native speakers) for example English in African countries, French
in African Countries, Swahili in American or European countries or some other African countries.
(d) National language
This is the language that has been selected and accepted by the government so that it should be and is being used as the major tool of
communication by the majority of the people within a particular country or a Nation.
It is the language which is widely spoken in the largest part of the country.The National language ought to be one of the official language
in the country and also needs to be a standard language.
The National language likewise ought to be the medium of instruction at any levels of education in the country. For example Swahili in
Tanzania,English in Kenya, Zambia, Uganda, Liberia etc. French in Cameroon, Senegal, DRC Congo, Gabon etc.
(e) Official language
This is the language that has been selected and accepted by the government that it should be used as a tool of communication in all
official matters and public places within the country such as in the government officers, school, hospital, courts of law, parliament etc.
An official language must be standard i.e. the one with uniform spellings, structure and pronunciations for example Swahili and English
are the two official language in Tanzania
(f) Standard language
This is the language which has its own orthography (spellings), structure and pronunciations modified so that they are the same wherever the language is spoken or used i.e. the language with uniform spellings, structure and pronunciation.It is the variety of language which is generally taken as prestigious recognized as correct and acceptable grammatically lexically and phonologically.
The standard language or dialect is the one used by educated people or the ruling class and the one with high status on speech and writing of the educated nature speakers of that language.
It is the variety of language which is widely under stood, used in mass media, described in dictionaries and its grammar so taught to the non – native speaker when they learn it as the foreign language
Features of standard language
1. It is non – localized i.e. It is not restricted to a certain particular region – it is widely spread in different regions.
2. It is usually taught in schools as a model of variety especially to the foreign learners
3. It is thought to be a dialect of the upper class
4. It is a dialect that dominates the media in the world for example Television, serious Newspapers and magazines, radio etc
How is a language standardized
There are several processes that are normally involved in language standardization
(a) Selection
Out of many dialects of a language, one is chosen in order to be standardized. The choice is influenced by social factors. For
example the variety that is spoken by a class of people who are considered to be important is more likely to be selected than
other varieties such as the variety of the rich people; the royal family, the upper class etc will be favored in the selection.
(b) Codification
This is the practice of creating norm of usage; this is done by writing the grammar of the selected dialect, dictionaries and
encyclopaedia.This process is meant to familiarize people with the variety to be standardized
(c) Elaboration
Under this process the role which the standard of dialect will play is made clear. For example the role of dialect in education, management, government etc need to be clearly explained
(d) Acceptance
At this stage the chosen dialect is voted for normally members of the parliament accept the variety on behalf of the people from
there the language becomes standard.
(g) Pidgin
This is a new language which emerges or arises as a contact vernacular between or among people (group of people) who need to communicate but do not share a common language. I.e. it is a simplified kind of language that develops when there is a contact between two groups of people who have different linguistic background and these people have no other language than the two languages they use or speak.
It is an auxiliary language which is formed or arises between or among two groups of people who come into contact to fulfill only certain limited communication needs or purposes. These people have different language (without sharing a common language)
Types of pidgin
1.Temporary (Marginal)
This is the pidgin which arises in a speech community and last or exist for a very short time. This may happen between the expatriates and house servants or laborers or among the soldiers from different countries when they are needed for a special task on contract with fixed time. I.e. this language usually disappears after the contact is over.
2. Expanded
This is the pidgin language which exists for a reasonable duration of time and extends its domains of use beyond or outside the spheres of its origin i.e. it is a type of pidgin that develops in the Multi – lingual areas i.e. places that have many languages.
In some countries this type of pidgin is even used in radio broadcast and parliamentary debates and has even become a written language, codified in dictionaries and used regularly in books and news – papers
NOTE: – The origin of pidgin is traced back with regard to the triangular slave trade in Atlantic west Africa and west indies
coasts especially in the trade routes and coastal areas. For example Tok – pisin is a good example of an English base
pidgin used in Papua New Guinea, West Africa.
Characteristics of pidgin
Pidgin has a number of characteristics features as follows
(i) It is a new language which emerges after the contact of two groups of people who had never met before.
(ii) Pidgin has no native speakers due to the fact that it is a new language that is formed by two groups of people who
already have their own native Language. I.e. pidgin does not belong to any particular group of people who use and
regard it as the native language.
(iii)The pidgin language is formed to fulfill certain limited communication needs or function i.e. it has a limited range of
function as it is formed to cater for Specific or limited purpose such as trade, business, conversation etc.
(iv)Pidgin has a unique grammar with very simple syntactic structure than the lexified language such as it lacks pluralism of
nouns, Concordia a agreement between the subject and predicate in the third person.
(v) Pidgin is a temporary language which emerges and exist for a short duration of time when it is extended and exist for a
long time, it is when it becomes Creole.
(vi) The lexicon (vocabulary) of pidgin is derived from another dominant language (lexified language) which guides the
grammar of the pidgin language.
(vii) Speakers of pidgin employ paralinguistic features such as the use of gestures, sign etc. this is due to lack enough
vocabulary.
(h)Creole
This is a pidgin language that arises as the mother tongue of a newly formed community of people who do not share a common language other than an emerging or already established pidgin.
It is the expanded pidgin which has become the mother tongue (native language) of the new members (generation) of a speech community i.e. It is a pidgin that has acquires people who speak it as their first language. This is normally the case when speakers of a pidgin bare children who know other language than a pidgin.
Creole is a pidgin language which has been widely spoken and adopted as a mother tongue of the new generation.
Examples of Creole
English lexified Jamaican, French
Krio – English based Creole spoken in sierra – Leon
Guyana – America
Gullah – USA
Characteristics of Creole
1. It is not a new language it is formed from pidgin. I.e. Creole comes into being through the transformation of pidgin which has
become the mother tongue of a speech community.
2. Creole has a community of native speakers i.e. it is formed from expanded pidgin which become the mother tongue (native
language of the new generation) thus Creole belongs to a particular speech community who uses it as the native language.
3. Creole has a file range of function as any other language i.e. it is treated or regarded as a full language and performs all functions
that any language can perform and hence used as the mother tongue of the vast majority of particular countries for example English
lexified Jamaican used in Jamaica.
4. Creole has a comprehensive grammar with its grammatical rules embodied with precise syntactic systems than expanded pidgin i.e.
the syntax (grammar) of Creoles is obit more advance than that of pidgin.
5. Creole is a permanent language since it is transformed from expanded pidgin and exists in a particular geographical location or
country and used permanently by a speech community. In some countries creoles may even become the National language used
officially in public places, codified in dictionaries etc.
6. Creole has comprehensive vocabulary which are derived from another dominant or lexifier language i.e. Creole have more developed
vocabulary compared to pidgin.
(i) International language
This is the language which has been worldwide accepted as a tool of communication among various Nations of the world. I.e. it is the language used or spoken in different Nations from different continents of the world such a language ought to be accepted by UNO as the major means of communication in the international forms.
At present it is only English and French which have been accepted as the most prevailing international language.
Criteria which make language international
There are several factors to be considered in the promotion of a language to be international
(i) The number of speakers that the language has in order for the language to become international, it needs to have a reasonable number of the native and non–native speakers. I.e. the language should either as a native language or a non- native language. For example English is said to have over 600,000,000 speakers from different countries but surprisingly Chinese has about 900,000,000 speakers but it is not on international language. This is because Chinese is only spoken by the native speakers within China.
(ii) The number of countries and continents i.e. the extent to which the language is geographically dispersed.
In order for the language to be international. It ought to be used or spoken in different countries from different or various continents of the world. For example English is used as the first language in many countries such as UK< USA< Ireland, Australia, New-Zealand, Canada, the Caribbean countries and South Africa. It is also used as the second language in the common wealth countries such as Zimbabwe, Pakistan, Nigeria, India, Kenya etc the same applies for French in West African countries.
(iii) The economics and political influence and power of the native speakers. I.e. how economically and politically the native speakers are influential. This implies that in order for the language to be international, its native speakers (the countries were that language is used as a native language) should have a great power and influence over other countries. For example the Americans and the British being political and economical influential may force English as their native language become international.
(iv) The extent to which the language is the medium for science, literature and other important areas or aspects. This is also referred to the languages vehicular load. For the language to become international is should be the medium (tool) for science and technology, literature and other aspects of human life such as culture, economics, politics etc. this implies that an international language needs to cater for several purposes or functions rather than being only for communication, it should go beyond communication.
(v) Acceptability of the language by UNO
The international language ought to be worldwide accepted by UNO and the world educated linguists as the major means of communication in all international affairs in the world. The language needs to be standard, codified (written in Books) and used as one of the official language of UNO.
NB: With above criteria English and French qualify to be the international language
(j) Lingua-Franca
This is a common language which is adapted in the malt-lingual society (the society with many languages) in which all the speakers are not proficient in all language being used or spoken. I.e. it is the language which had been accepted as the common means of communication in the community with different languages.
This is an auxiliary language that it used to facilitates routine (day- to- day) communication between people who have different linguistics backgrounds in that they have different language for example Swahili in Tanzania is a lingua- franca English is a lingua- franca of the world.
(k)Diglossia
This is a situation whereby two language or language varieties coexist (exist side by side) in a community in which each language or language variety is used for a different purpose or social function.
In this situation one language or language variety has a higher status than another so one is considered to be high and the other as low.
A high variety language is used for formal or serious matters in the society such as in education official matter, public places, international affairs etc on the other hand, the low variety (language is used for informal uses or such as friendly letters, conversation.
The Diaglossic nature of language in Tanzania entails the existence of three language English, Swahili, Ethnic community language as Double overlapping Diaglossic due to the fact that one language(Swahili) is used in both formal and informal domains when compared with the vernacular language and English respectively.
This implies that when Swahili is placed with vernaculars. It is considered as a high language is considered as low. On the other hand when Swahili is placed with English, English is high where as Swahili is low.
(l)Bilingualism
This is the ability of (the use by) of an individual of two languages (or more) i.e. it is the situation whereby an individual person has the ability to speak two (or more) languages.
A person with the ability of using or speaking two languages is technique known as a Bilingual person.
The following are the features of a Bilingual person:
1. Ability to use, speak or know two languages equally well or perfectly.
2. The ability to use or speak one language and understand another language without being able to speak or use it.
3. The ability to use each language in different types of situations or Domains for example at home, at school or at work.
4. The ability to read and write in any one of the two language
5. The ability to use each language for a different communicating purpose for example talking about personal life writing letter.
6. A Bilingual is the one who has learn two languages in the family.
7. A Bilingual is the one who has used two languages since childhood.
WHAT IS A LINGUIST?
Is a scholar who studies language scientifically i.e. is a person who is specialized in the scientific study of language (linguistics). A linguist is not necessary a speaker of the language he or she is studying for example he or she study the grammar of a certain language without being able to use of speak it.